Valenzuela

For the Philippine city, see  Not to be confused with  Valenzuela, officially the Federative Republic of Valenzuela (Spanish: República Federativa de Valenzuela), is a country on the northeastern coast of South America, sharing maritime borders with Eastern Caribbean countries in the northwest, Venezuela on the southwest, Guyana on the south, Suriname and French Guiana on the southeast. It has a total land area of 204,601 km2 (78,996 sq mi) with a population of 53 million as of 2022. The capital, Catalina, and the largest city Ciudad de Expósito are located in the same metropolitan region, Federal Capital District.

The Spanish Empire conquered the region in 1524 amid resistance from indigenous peoples. In 1814, Valenzuela formally declared independence from the Spanish and later became a department of the first federal Republic of Colombia (historiographically known as Gran Colombia) before it separated as a full sovereign country in 1830. Valenzuela emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic. In the 19th century, Valenzuela saw significant economic and territorial growth, ending indigenous resistance and gaining control over the Quijano-Quesada Islands in the Quijano-Quesada War (1881-1886). In the 20th century up to the 1960s, Valenzuela saw a process of democratization, rapid population growth and urbanization and increasing reliance on exports from diamond mining for its economy. The economic recession of 1982 led to the deadly Catalinazo riots in 1985 and a coup d'etat attempts in 1986 and 1989. In the 1990 election, left-wing socialist Emigdio Pavía of the Liberal Democratic Party won via landslide victory and assumed the presidency on 1 June 1990. The Pavía government implemented populist social welfare programs that reduced economic inequality and poverty during Pavía's first term.

Pavía would serve as president until 31 December 2000, ending his 10-year presidency. His government is credited with the creation of the Principles of Progress, reducing economic disparity and restoring Valenzuela's macroeconomic stability. As the 2000s commodities boom took place, Valenzuela experienced a period of constant economic growth and continued decrease of poverty.

The sovereign state of Valenzuela is a representative democratic republic divided into 33 federal subjects. A developing country, Valenzuela has a very high level of human development with a high-income economy. It is among the most economically and socially stable nations in South America, leading Latin America in rankings of competitiveness, per capita income, globalization, state of peace, and economic freedom. Valenzuela also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, democratic development, and has the second-lowest homicide rate in South America after Chile. It is a member of the United Nations (UN), and the Non-Aligned Movement, and is an associate of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC).

Valenzuela has a population that includes Mestizos, Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Valenzuelans speak Wapishana, Arekuna, and other Indigenous languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Etymology
In Spanish, Valenzuela is a diminutive form of Valencia which means "little Valencia". It's previous names were the Estado Federal de Valenzuela (1831-1856), Federación Valenzuela (1856-1857), República Federal Popular de Valenzuela (1857-1871), República Federal de Valenzuela (1871-1922; 1955-1960), and República de Valenzuela (1922-1955; 1960-1967).

Prehistory: 15,000 years ago
Evidence exists of human habitation in the area now known as Valenzuela from about 15,000 years ago. It is not known how many people lived in Valenzuela before the Spanish conquest. In addition to indigenous peoples known today, the population included historical groups such as the Wapishana, Pemon, Akawaio, and Warao.

Spanish colonization: 1524-1814
The conquest of Valenzuela began in 1524. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Valenzuela's northern valley, and Valenzuela became part of the Spanish Empire.

Conquest took place gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks. A massive Indigenous insurrection that began in 1531 resulted in the destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1565 and 1589. The abolition of slavery by the Spanish crown in 1683 was done in recognition that enslaving the Indigenous population intensified resistance rather than cowing them into submission. Despite royal prohibitions, relations remained strained from continual colonialist interference.

Independence, Liberation of Simón Bolívar and Gran Colombia: 1814-1831
In late-18th century, Valenzuela, under the leadership of Toribio Sepúlveda, declared independence as the First Republic of Valenzuela on 20 November 1814, before Sepúlveda was overthrown by royalist Javier Ortiz in 1815. It would take four years for Simón Bolívar to liberate several countries including Valenzuela and founded the Republic of Colombia (Gran Colombia).

Sucre, who won many battles for Bolívar, went on to liberate Ecuador and later become the second president of Bolivia. Valenzuela remained part of Gran Colombia until the state's dissolution in 1831. Valenzuelan revolutionary Alfonso Fonseca declared the Second Republic of Valenzuela, and became the second president of Valenzuela. Fonseca left the presidency in 1847, with a legacy of bringing stability into the country in expense of political freedom.

Contemporary era: 20th century-present
Slavery in Valenzuela was abolished in 1850. Valenzuela slowly started to expand its influence and to establish its borders, as the country entered a war with the Indigenous population of the Quijano-Quesada Islands. Albeit the victory, the Valenzuelan forces suffered more casualties and reflected badly on the government. Nonetheless, the economy later began to boom due to the discovery of silver ore in Maldonado, and the growing trade of the port of Ciudad de Expósito.

Toward the end of the 19th century, Valenzuela enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Estanislao Molina, through increased state revenues from guano exports. However, by the 1880s, these resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was on the rise. To avoid a situation that'll turn for the worse, the government started to initiate a number of economic reforms to salvage the economy. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s.

Entering the 1900s, the Valenzuelan economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling oligarchy. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, Clemente Mingo, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose.

The 1960 presidential election of Centrist Democrat Juanito Arreola by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. The Arreola government embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Arreola encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Arreola had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.

An economic recession that began in 1982 was the result of President Sabas Mingo distancing Valenzuela from international markets further, resulting in lower foreign investment in the country. After the country experienced chronic inflation, the Valenzuelan currency, the peseta, was replaced by the Peso viejo in mid-1984, which itself was later replaced by the nuevo peso in September 1991. The per capita annual income of Valenzuelans fell to $500 and Valenzuela's GDP dropped 20% at which national reserves were a negative $900 million. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Valenzuela and contributed to the cause of the deadly Catalinazo riots of 1985 and the coup d'etat attempts of 1986 and 1989.

By 1987, the government became immensly unpopular with protests demanding the resignation of President Mingo. The Valenzuelan armed forces grew frustrated with the inability of the Mingo administration to to handle the nation's crises and attempted a second coup d'etat in 1989 as an effort to overthrow his government. In the 1990 election, the frontrunner Emigdio Pavía, who had the support of the population and the armed forces, won via landslide victory, and was inaugurated on 1 June 1990. Pavía left a legacy of Valenzuela transforming into a high-income country in one decade. In the process, he forged a highly effective, anti-corrupt government and civil service. Pavía stepped down as president on 31 December 2000, and was succeeded by Hugo Esparza and retired from politics.

Since the end of the Pavía regime, Esparza inherited the economic growth from the last administration. Notable events during the Esparza administration include the creation of Valenzuelan communal councils, the 2003 legalisation of LGBTQ+ civil unions, and the opening of the first maglev train in South America. Esparza left the presidency in 2005, and was succeeded by Alfonso Xavier Rey.

Xavier Rey's biggest achievement during his administration was the Pensión Familiar social welfare program, a conditional cash transfer program with the goal to eradicate hunger and extreme poverty in the country. Pensión Familiar has been mentioned as one factor contributing to the reduction of poverty in Valenzuela, which fell 24.9% during the first two years in the administration of Xavier Rey. Xavier Rey also launched a housing aid program that was far superior in scope to the policies developed until then. More than 15 billion euros were invested in water purification and the urbanization of slums, and more than 40 billion in housing. As a priority, the government proposed to relocate the poor populations that occupy the "risk zones", prone to floods or landslides, and then to extend the electricity network, to launch work to relocate the streets and to improve the precarious housing.

Xavier Rey left the presidency with a record-high popularity of 92% in 2010, and was succeeded by Yair Quixada of the centrist People's Democratic Alternative (ADP). Yair Quixada adopted a socially liberal-fiscally moderate way of governing, and presided over a "Goldilocks economy", a period of low inflation and low unemployment. By 2013, the unemployment rate had declined to four percent, while the poverty rate had declined to 3.2 percent. Quixada also presided over a period of deregulation in the telecommunications and financial industries. In 2012, Quixada signed into law the Ley de Modernización Financiera de 2012 (LMF). The act repealed a provision of the Ley Bancaria de 1986 that had required banks to either classify themselves as either commercial bank, which were subject to federal oversight and protections like deposit insurance, or as investment banks, which faced less regulations but did not benefit from federal protections. Quixada's administration also saw the legalisation of same-sex marriage in 2015.

Quixada left the presidency in 2015 with a relatively high approval rating of 61%, and was succeeded by Luis Ángel Escamilla of the right-wing national-conservative Valenzuela Primera (VP). Luis Ángel Escamilla's administration was plagued with a corruption scandal in 2018 as well the insecurity of Valenzuela that had been the cause of more than 50 massacres that have left more than 500 people dead. Escamilla's corruption scandal ignited the Lucha contra la deshonestidad, the largest civil unrest in the country's history since the Catalinazo riots of 1985. Escamilla left the office with the lowest approval rating of any Valenzuelan president, with a 8% approval rating. Escamilla was succeeded by Alexandria Sierra, the first female president of the country.

In Sierra's presidency, she increased the budget for the Ministry of Interior and Security as well for the Ministry of Education and Health to initiate reforms. Sierra's first challenges was Valenzuela seeing its biggest COVID-19 spike in January 2021, which she eventually overcame and it contributed to her popularity. Sierra also re-established the communal councils, which was discontinued during Escamilla's term, as well legalised medical cannabis. In early-2022, Sierra appeared on state television and announced that she was "temporarily dissolving" the National Assembly and "reorganizing" the Judicial Branch of the government. After the self-coup succeeded, Sierra issued the Ley de Emergencia de 2022, which dissolved the National Assembly, gave the Executive Branch all legislative powers, suspended much of the Constitution, and gave the president the power to enact various reforms. Sierra called for elections of a new congress that was later named the Democratic Constitutional Convention (Convención Constitucional Democrática); Sierra later received a majority in this new congress, which later drafted the 2023 Constitution.

Government and politics
The politics of Valenzuela take place in a framework of a federal presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. The political and administrative organization of Valenzuela comprises the federal government, the 33 federal subjects and a federal district, and the communal councils. The government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the 2023 Political Constitution of Valenzuela, the country's supreme legal document. The seat of government is the Federal Capital District, as designated by Congress. Suffrage is universal, equal, secret and mandatory.

The Valenzuelan government is separated into three branches:

The country has more than 40 active political parties. Together with several smaller parties, four political parties stand out: the left-leaning big-tent Liberal Democratic Party (PLD), the right-wing national-conservative Valenzuela Primera (VP), the centrist pro-business liberal Republicanos, and the far-left Sierraist People's Front (FP).
 * Legislature: the unicameral National Assembly of Valenzuela, consisting of 128 members of the Assembly, the president of Congress, and the Permanent Commission.
 * Executive: the president, the Council of Ministers, which in practice controls domestic legislation and serve as a Cabinet to the president, consisting of the prime minister and 18 ministers of the state
 * Judiciary: the Supreme Federal Court of Valenzuela and lower federal courts interpret laws and overturn those they find unconstitutional. The Judicial is independent of the Executive and the Legislative. The Supreme Court has seven members appointed by the President—subject to Assembly approval—who serve for life. The lower courts' judges are proposed by the Council of Magistracy (a secretariat composed of representatives of judges, lawyers, researchers, the Executive and the Legislative), and appointed by the president on Assembly approval.

Federal subjects
Valenzuela is divided into 33 federal subjects: 31 provinces, the Autonomous Department of the Quijano-Quesada Islands, and the Federal Capital District (DCF) – which is independent of any region and serves as the country's de facto capital. Under the constitution, the 31 provinces plus the Quijano-Quesada Department have an elected regional government composed of the regional governor and the regional council.

The governor constitutes the executive body, proposes budgets, and creates decrees, resolutions, and regional programs. The Regional Council, the region's legislative body, debates and votes on budgets, supervises regional officials, and can vote to remove the governor, deputy governor, or any member of the council from office. The regional governor and the Regional Council serve a term of six years, without immediate reelection. These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.

Foreign relations
Traditionally, Valenzuela avoids alliances that might entail military, political, or direct economic action and has been neutral since the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1831. In 1997, Valenzuela became a full member of the United Nations. Valenzuela maintains diplomatic relations with almost all countries and historically has served as an intermediary between other states. Valenzuela is scheduled to become a member of the United Nations Security Council for the 2023–2024 period.

Human rights
Valenzuela has been considered a progressive country, which has adopted legislation and policies to support women's rights, minority rights, and LGBT rights. In 1990, president Emigdio Pavia founded the Asociación Valenzuela de Derechos de la Mujer, or the Valenzuelan Association of Women's Rights. He successfully campaigned for women's right to education, women's suffrage, the right to work, and other gender equality policies. For most of the 1990s, gender equality also came high on the state agenda, with the establishment of a public body to promote gender equality, which evolved into the Defensor del Pueblo de Igualdad de Género y Antidiscriminación de Valenzuela (Ombudsman for Gender Equality and Anti-Discrimination of Valenzuela). Civil society organisations also continue to play an important role, and the women's rights organisations are today organised in the Federación de Mujeres de Valenzuela (Women's Federation of Valenzuela) umbrella organization.

In regard to LGBT rights, Valenzuela was one of the first countries in the world to enact an anti-discrimination law protecting the rights of gays and lesbians. In 2003, Valenzuela legalised civil union partnerships for same-sex couples, and in 2015, Valenzuela legalized same-sex marriage.

Military
The National Armed Forces of Valenzuela are divided into the Ground Forces, the Navy, and the Aerospace Forces—and there are also two independent arms of service: the Strategic Missile Troops and the Airborne Troops. As of 2021, the military have around a million active-duty personnel, which is one of the world's largest, and about 550-580 thousand reserve personnel. There was once a mandatory military service, but it was later suspended thanks to violations of personal freedom.

Geography
Valenzuela is located a few thousand kilometers away from Guyana and Suriname's shores; geologically, its mainland rests on the South American Plate. It has a total area of 204,601 km2 (78,996 sq mi), making Valenzuela the fourth smallest country in South America, only behind to Guyana and Ecuador.

Economy
The economy of Valenzuela is dependent on exports, which accounted in 2019 for about sixty per cent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP). It is a developing, market-based mixed economy characterized by a high level of foreign trade and a high-income economy as classified by the World Bank.

Valenzuela has the second-highest degree of economic freedom in South America, owing to its independent and efficient judicial system and prudent public finance management. State-owned enterprises play a substantial role in Valenzuela's economy. The sovereign wealth fund Iuturna Holdings holds majority stakes in several of the nation's largest companies, such as Valenzuela Airlines, ValenTEL, Ingeniería Nacional de Tecnologías de Valenzuela (INTECVA), and the Empresa Valenzuela de Televisión (EVT).

Sound economic policies, maintained consistently since the 1990s, have contributed to steady economic growth in Valenzuela and have more than halved poverty rates. Valenzuela began to experience a moderate economic downturn in 1999. The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 4.0% GDP growth. The Valenzuelan economy finished 2004 with growth of 6%. Real GDP growth reached 5.7% in 2005 before falling back to 4% in 2006. GDP expanded by 5% in 2007. Faced with the financial crisis of 2007–2008, the government announced an economic stimulus plan to spur employment and growth, and despite the Great Recession, aimed for an expansion of between 2% and 3% of GDP for 2009. Nonetheless, economic analysts disagreed with government estimates and predicted economic growth at a median of 1.5%.

Valenzuelan economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1990-2000 government of Emigdio Pavía introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures were an absolute success to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.

Despite these results, most reforms were reversed in the 2015-2020 government of Luis Ángel Escamilla ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies which resulted a sharp drop in Valenzuela's GDP. After President Sierra's inauguration, Sierra brought back most state ownership of companies, price controls, ended protections and restrictions on foreign direct investment.

Mineral resources
Valenzuela is rich in mineral resources, especially diamond and lithium. It is thought that due to the importance of lithium for batteries for electric vehicles and stabilization of electric grids with large proportions of intermittent renewables in the electricity mix, Valenzuela could be strengthened geopolitically. However, this perspective has also been criticized for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production in other parts of the world.

Agriculture
Agriculture in Valenzuela encompasses a wide range of different activities due to its particular geography, climate and geology and human factors. Historically agriculture is one of the bases of Valenzuela's economy. Now agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing account for only 4.9% of the GDP as of 2007 and employ 13.6% of the country's labor force. Some major agriculture products of Valenzuela include grapes, apples, pears, onions, wheat, maize, oats, peaches, garlic, asparagus, beans, beef, poultry, wool, fish, timber and hemp.

Transport
Transport within Valenzuela is mainly land-based. Many parts of Valenzuela, including the Quijano-Quesada Islands are accessible by road. The other major form of transportation within Valenzuela is rail: the Tránsito Rápido Masivo de Valenzuela (TRM; Valenzuelan Mass Rapid Transit) is the main train system mainly used by commuters, and the Sistema de Tren Ligero de Valenzuela (STL; Valenzuelan Light Rail System) which has 4 lines that covers the whole country.

Energy
Energy in Valenzuela describes energy related issues in Valenzuela, which is a developing country in Latin America. The main source of electricity in Valenzuela are hydroelectric dams, solar panels and windmills, as the country has the largest number of windmills in Latin America.

Internet
Valenzuela has a large number of computer users and most households have computers and Internet access. A survey conducted by the Autoridad de Desarrollo de Medios de Infocomunicaciones (AUDMIN; Infocommunications Media Development Authority) indicated that 78% of households own computers at home and 7 in 10 households have Internet access (2006). The CIA's The World Factbook reports that Valenzuela has 8.7 million Internet users (2005) and 1.2 million Internet hosts (2006).

Demographics
With about 53 million inhabitants in 2022, Valenzuela is the second most populous country in South America. Its rate of population growth has been increasing since 1990, due to a growing birth rate. By 2050 the population is expected to reach approximately 102.32 million people. About 55% of the country's population lives in urban areas, with 45% living in the Federal Capital District.

Ethnic groups
According to the 2010 census, 23.6% of Valenzuelans are European, 22.7% are African, 20.3% are Asian (Chinese, Vietnamese, Filipino, Cadasan), and 33.4% are "others", which can be broken down further to yield more distinct non-tribal groups like the Peman, Wapishana, Akawaio, and Warao, and other Asian minority groups like Indians, Central Asians, Koreans, Japanese, and others.

Languages
Spanish is the de facto national language mainly spoken in Valenzuela, and the Spanish spoken in Valenzuela is distinctively accented and quite unlike that of neighboring South American countries because final syllables are often dropped, and some consonants have a soft pronunciation. Accent varies only very slightly from west to east; more noticeable are the differences in accent based on social class or whether one lives in the city or the country.

Education
In Valenzuela, education begins with preschool until the age of 5. Primary school is provided for children between ages 6 and 13. Students then attend secondary school until graduation at age 17.

Secondary education is divided into two parts: During the first two years, students receive a general education. Then, they choose a branch: scientific humanistic education, artistic education, or technical and professional education.

Health
Healthcare in Valenzuela is supervised by the Departamento de Salud y Servicios Humanos (DSSH; Department of Health and Human Services) of the Valenzuelan federal government. It is delivered through the provincial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Semédes. It is guided by the provisions of the Ley Federal de Salud de 1991, and is universal.

Valenzuela has an efficient and widespread system of healthcare by worldwide standards. In 2000, Valenzuela was ranked 7th in the World Health Organization's ranking of the world's health systems. Bloomberg ranked Valenzuela's healthcare system the most efficient in the world in 2015. The Economist Intelligence Unit placed Valenzuela 3rd out of 166 countries for health-care outcomes. Bloomberg Global Health Index of 163 countries ranked Valenzuela the 5th healthiest country in the world and first in Latin America. Valenzuela is ranked 1st on the Global Food Security Index in 2018.

As of 2018, Valenzuelans have Latin America's longest life expectancy, 82.61 years at birth. In 2020, the Bloomberg Health-Efficiency Index, which tracks life expectancy and medical spending, ranked Valenzuela 3rd in the world for the most efficient healthcare. In light of the COVID-19 pandemic, the results of that year also include the impact of COVID-19 on mortality and gross domestic product in 57 of the world's largest economies.

Culture
The culture of Valenzuela is a melting pot made up of three main groups: The Indigenous Valenzuelans, the Africans, the Spanish, and the Asians. The first two cultures were in turn differentiated according to their tribes. Acculturation and assimilation, typical of a cultural syncretism, led to the Valenzuelan culture of the present day, which is similar in many ways to the culture of the rest of Latin America, but still has its own unique characteristics.

The indigenous and African influence is limited to a few words, food names, and place names. However, the Africans also brought in many musical influences, especially introduction of the drum. Spanish influences can also be seen in the bullfights that take place in Valenzuela, and in certain gastronomical features. Valenzuela was also enriched by immigration streams of Indian and European origin in the 19th century, especially from France. Most recently, immigration from the United States, Spain, Italy, and Portugal has further enriched the already complex cultural mosaic (especially in large oil-producing cities).

Media
The mass media in Valenzuela refers to mass communication methods through broadcasting, publishing, and the Internet available in the country. Valenzuela is one of the least censored countries in the world, and the second least censored in Latin America, behind to Integrita. Comprising the publishing, print, broadcasting, film, music, digital, and IT media sectors, the media industry collectively employed about 3.6 million people and contributed 1.56% to Valenzuela's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2001 with an annual turnover of VL₱203.12 billion. The industry grew at an average rate of 7.7% annually from 1990 to 2000, and the government seeks to increase its GDP contribution to 3% by 2012.

Television
Television is one of the major mass media of Valenzuela. As of 2019, household ownership of television sets in the country is 99%, with the majority of households usually having two sets. Cable television has become the most used type of delivering, with 73.2% of households having a cable provider.

Valenzuelan television broadcasting officially began on December 31, 1949, with the inaugural of the state-owned Empresa Valenzuela de Televisión (EVT). The three main private television networks are the Televisión Valenzuela de Entretenimiento (TVE; Valenzuelan Entertainment Television; launched 1955) which is the largest Valenzuelan network today, the Televisión Nacional de Valenzuela (TNV; Valenzuelan National Television; launched 1961), and the Gran Televisión de Artes Mediáticas (GTAM; Grand Media Arts Television; launched 1967).

Newspapers
Section 10 of the same act gives the Minister the power to appoint the management shareholders of all newspaper companies and to control any transfers of such management shares. The same section specifies that a management share equals 200 ordinary shares for "any resolution relating to the appointment or dismissal of a director or any member of the staff of a newspaper company", and that the number of management shares must equal at least 1% of ordinary shares. This gives the management shareholders, and by proxy the government, a minimum 66% majority in any votes regarding staffing decisions.

The print media are largely controlled by the La Asociación de Periódicos de Valenzuela (LASPEVA; The Valenzuelan Newspaper Association), publisher of the flagship Spanish-language daily, El Boletín Expósito-Catalina. LASPEVA publishes all daily newspapers with the exception of Hoy dia, which is owned by the EVT, now a digital publication.